Australia
Last Updated: 2026-03-19
Official Portal: Department of Home Affairs — Citizenship
Embassy Finder: Australian Embassies & Consulates Worldwide
Quick Facts
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Residency for Naturalization | 4 years (including at least 12 months as a permanent resident) |
| Language Requirement | Basic English — demonstrated through citizenship test (conducted in English) |
| Processing Time | 12-18 months (standard); up to 24+ months in backlog periods |
| Application Fee | AUD 490 (adult, as of 2024-2025); no fee for children under 16 included in parent’s application |
| Dual Citizenship | Yes — fully permitted since April 4, 2002 |
| Citizenship by Descent | Yes — one generation born outside Australia (registration required) |
| Citizenship Test | Yes — 20 multiple-choice questions, 75% pass mark (15/20 correct) |
| Passport Strength | Visa-free or visa-on-arrival to 185+ countries |
Dual Citizenship — Yes
Australia has fully permitted dual (and multiple) citizenship since April 4, 2002, when the Australian Citizenship Legislation Amendment Act 2002 took effect. Prior to that date, Australian citizens who voluntarily acquired another nationality automatically lost their Australian citizenship. Since 2002, no Australian loses citizenship merely by acquiring another nationality, and no applicant for Australian citizenship is required to renounce any prior nationality.
Acquisition of Nationality
Australian citizenship is governed by the Australian Citizenship Act 2007 (Cth), which replaced the Australian Citizenship Act 1948. The Act is administered by the Department of Home Affairs. Key amendments include the 2002 dual citizenship reforms, 2007 consolidation, the 2015 allegiance-to-Australia provisions, and the 2017 citizenship test and residency reforms (some of which were proposed but not fully enacted).
By Birth (Jus Soli) — Conditional
Australia does not grant automatic citizenship to all children born on its territory. Jus soli is conditional:
- At least one parent is an Australian citizen or permanent resident at the time of birth: The child is an Australian citizen automatically from birth. No application required.
- Neither parent is a citizen or permanent resident: The child does not acquire Australian citizenship at birth. However, under Section 12(1)(b) of the Citizenship Act 2007, a person born in Australia who has been ordinarily resident in Australia for the first 10 years of their life automatically becomes an Australian citizen on their 10th birthday, regardless of the parents’ status. This is sometimes called the “10-year rule.”
- Foundlings: A child found abandoned in Australia whose parents are unknown is presumed to be an Australian citizen, unless proven otherwise before the child turns 15.
- Children born to diplomats: Children born in Australia to foreign diplomatic personnel accredited to Australia do not acquire Australian citizenship by birth (diplomatic immunity exemption).
By Descent (Jus Sanguinis) — One Generation Abroad
A person born outside Australia to at least one parent who was an Australian citizen at the time of the child’s birth may acquire Australian citizenship by descent (Section 16, Citizenship Act 2007). Key points:
- Registration required: Citizenship by descent is not automatic. The parent must apply to register the child as an Australian citizen by descent.
- One-generation limit: If the Australian parent themselves acquired citizenship by descent (i.e., was also born outside Australia), additional conditions apply. The child must be registered before turning 25, and the parent must have spent at least 2 years in Australia at any time before the child’s birth. If the parent acquired citizenship by birth in Australia or by grant (naturalization), there are no additional conditions.
- No generational cascade without connection: Australia effectively limits citizenship by descent to one generation born abroad unless the family maintains ties (physical presence) in Australia. A second generation born abroad can still register, but if the Australian citizen parent was themselves registered by descent, they must demonstrate the 2-year residency link.
- Time limit: Applications should be made before the child turns 25. After age 25, alternative pathways (such as applying for a visa and later naturalization) may be needed.
- Evidence required: Birth certificate, parent’s Australian citizenship evidence, identity documents, passport photos.
By Adoption
- A child adopted under the Hague Convention on Intercountry Adoption or a bilateral adoption arrangement, where at least one adoptive parent is an Australian citizen, automatically acquires Australian citizenship upon finalization of the adoption.
- For adoptions not covered by the Hague Convention, the child may need to apply for citizenship by descent or by conferral, depending on circumstances.
- The adoption must be recognized under Australian law.
By Marriage
Australia does not offer a direct citizenship-by-marriage pathway. Marriage to an Australian citizen does not reduce residency requirements or create a separate application stream. A foreign spouse must:
- Obtain a Partner Visa (subclass 820/801 onshore or 309/100 offshore).
- Meet the standard residency requirements for citizenship by conferral (4 years total, including 12 months as a permanent resident).
- Pass the citizenship test and attend the citizenship ceremony like any other applicant.
The only practical advantage of marriage is access to the Partner Visa, which provides a pathway to permanent residency (and thus eventually citizenship) that might not otherwise be available.
By Naturalization (Conferral)
The standard pathway to Australian citizenship for permanent residents is citizenship by conferral (Section 21, Citizenship Act 2007).
| Category | Residency Requirement | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| General applicant (permanent resident) | 4 years lawful residence, including at least 12 months as a permanent resident | Must not have been absent from Australia for more than 12 months total in the 4-year period, including no more than 90 days in the 12 months immediately before applying |
| New Zealand citizens (Special Category Visa) | 4 years lawful residence (SCV holders treated as permanent residents for this purpose since July 2023 pathway changes) | See Special Clauses section below |
| Partner of Australian citizen | 4 years lawful residence (no reduction for marriage) | Standard requirements apply |
| Former Australian citizen | No residency requirement if resuming citizenship | See Recovery/Resumption below |
| Stateless persons | 4 years (standard) | May receive ministerial discretion for hardship |
| Persons with a parent who was an Australian citizen | May apply by descent; if ineligible, standard conferral pathway applies | See By Descent section |
| Distinguished service to Australia | Ministerial discretion | No fixed residency requirement; extremely rare |
Additional Requirements
- Age: Must be 18 or older (children under 18 are included in a parent’s application or can apply separately with a responsible parent).
- Citizenship test: 20 multiple-choice questions drawn from the resource booklet Australian Citizenship: Our Common Bond. Topics include Australian values, history, government, symbols, and the responsibilities and privileges of citizenship. Pass mark: 75% (15 of 20). The test is conducted in English, which serves as the de facto language requirement. Applicants aged 60+ or under 18 are exempt from the test.
- Good character: Applicants must be of good character. Criminal history checks are conducted. Serious criminal convictions (including imprisonment for 12 months or more) may result in refusal.
- Pledge: Successful applicants must attend a citizenship ceremony and make the Australian Citizenship Pledge (either with or without the optional reference to God). Ceremonies are typically conducted by local councils within 6 months of approval, often timed around Australian Citizenship Day (September 17) or Australia Day (January 26).
- Identity: Applicants must establish their identity to the satisfaction of the Department.
- Intention to reside: Applicants must intend to reside in Australia or maintain a close and continuing association with Australia.
Preferred Pathways
| Pathway | Typical Candidate | Time to Citizenship |
|---|---|---|
| Birth in Australia (parent is citizen/PR) | Child born in Australia to citizen or PR parent | Immediate (automatic) |
| 10-year rule (born in Australia, no citizen/PR parent) | Child born in Australia to non-citizen parents | 10 years (automatic on 10th birthday) |
| By descent (born abroad) | Child of Australian citizen born overseas | Registration; processing 1-6 months |
| By conferral (general) | Permanent resident living in Australia | 4 years residency + 12-18 months processing |
| New Zealand pathway | NZ citizen on Special Category Visa | 4 years + processing (simplified since 2023) |
| Resumption (former citizen) | Person who lost citizenship pre-2002 | Application; no residency requirement |
Where Your Passport Opens Doors
An Australian passport is one of the strongest travel documents in the world:
- Visa-free or visa-on-arrival: 185+ countries and territories, including the United States (ESTA), United Kingdom (6-month visitor), all Schengen Area countries, Japan, South Korea, Canada (eTA), and most of Latin America and Southeast Asia.
- Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement: Unrestricted right to live and work in New Zealand (and vice versa for NZ citizens in Australia). No visa required.
- Five Eyes alliance: Australia is part of the Five Eyes intelligence-sharing alliance (with the US, UK, Canada, and New Zealand), which facilitates certain security and diplomatic cooperation benefits.
- Working Holiday agreements: Reciprocal working holiday visa agreements with 40+ countries, including the UK, Canada, France, Germany, Ireland, Japan, South Korea, and many others.
- Consular protection: Access to consular assistance from Canadian and UK embassies in countries where Australia does not have diplomatic representation (under informal Commonwealth and bilateral arrangements).
- Education: Access to the Australian higher education system (HECS-HELP loan scheme available only to citizens and permanent residents).
Special Clauses & Programs
New Zealand Citizens — Special Category Visa (Subclass 444)
New Zealand citizens hold a unique position in Australian immigration law under the Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement (1973):
- NZ citizens can enter and remain in Australia indefinitely on a Special Category Visa (SCV, subclass 444), granted automatically on arrival.
- Historically, SCV holders were treated as temporary visa holders for citizenship purposes, creating a large population of long-term NZ residents who could never naturalize.
- July 1, 2023 reforms: The Australian government introduced a direct pathway for NZ citizens on SCVs to apply for Australian citizenship. NZ citizens who have held an SCV for 4 or more years and meet character and residency requirements can apply for citizenship by conferral without first obtaining permanent residency. This was a major policy shift that resolved decades of inequity.
- NZ citizens who arrived before February 26, 2001, had a separate (earlier) protected pathway to permanent residency and citizenship.
Section 22B — Persons Born Before 1986 to Non-Citizen Mothers
A transitional provision addresses gender discrimination in pre-1986 law. Before January 26, 1986, citizenship generally passed through the father. Section 22B allows persons born before that date to a non-citizen father and an Australian citizen mother to apply for citizenship if they did not acquire it automatically under the old rules.
Section 29 — Cessation for Dual Nationals Serving Foreign Governments
An Australian citizen who is also a citizen of another country may lose Australian citizenship if they serve in the armed forces of a country at war with Australia (Section 35 of the old Act, now largely superseded by allegiance provisions). The modern framework focuses on conduct inconsistent with allegiance.
Citizenship Stripping for Serious Offenses
Under Section 36A-36K of the Australian Citizenship Act 2007 (as amended in 2015 and further modified in 2020), dual nationals can have their Australian citizenship ceased (stripped) if they:
- Engage in terrorism-related conduct
- Fight for a declared terrorist organization
- Are convicted of serious national security offenses (with a sentence of 6+ years or 10+ years depending on the provision)
This power applies only to dual nationals (cannot render a person stateless). The provisions have been controversial and subject to ongoing legal challenge and legislative revision.
Investment Pathways
Citizenship by Investment (CBI)
Australia does not offer a direct citizenship-by-investment program. There is no amount of money that directly purchases Australian citizenship.
Golden Visa / Residency by Investment (RBI)
Australia offers several investment visa subclasses that lead to permanent residency, which then leads to citizenship via the standard conferral pathway (4 years residency).
| Visa Subclass | Investment Requirement | Duration | Path to PR |
|---|---|---|---|
| Significant Investor Visa (SIV) — Subclass 188C | AUD 5,000,000 into complying investments | Provisional (5 years) | Leads to subclass 888C permanent visa |
| Business Innovation and Investment (Provisional) — Subclass 188 | Varies by stream; AUD 800,000-2,500,000+ in business/venture capital | Provisional (5 years) | Leads to subclass 888 permanent visa |
| Global Talent Visa — Subclass 858 | No fixed investment; must demonstrate exceptional talent and ability to earn above the income threshold (AUD 167,500+) | Direct permanent residency | Already PR on grant |
Significant Investor Visa (SIV) — Subclass 188C Details
The SIV is Australia’s flagship investment residency program:
- Investment amount: AUD 5,000,000 (approximately USD 3.2 million)
- Complying investment framework (must be maintained for at least 4 years):
- At least AUD 1,000,000 in Australian venture capital or private equity funds targeting startups
- At least AUD 1,500,000 in approved managed funds investing in emerging companies listed on the ASX
- A balancing investment of up to AUD 2,500,000 in managed funds investing in a broader range of assets (may include Australian-listed equities, corporate bonds, real estate funds, but not direct residential real estate)
- Residency requirement: Provisional visa holder must spend at least 40 days per year in Australia (averaged over 4 years, or 160 days total)
- Family: Spouse/de facto partner and dependent children can be included
- Path to permanent residency: After 4 years, apply for subclass 888C (permanent). Then standard 4-year citizenship pathway begins.
- Total time to citizenship: Approximately 8-9 years (4 years provisional + permanent residency application processing + 4 years as PR + citizenship processing)
- No age limit, no English requirement, no points test for the SIV
Note: The Australian government has periodically reviewed and modified investment visa settings. In May 2024, the government announced reforms to the migration system. Always verify current program availability with the Department of Home Affairs.
Business & Entrepreneurship
Australia offers a strong startup ecosystem backed by government grants, a highly educated workforce, and growing venture capital activity. The Business Innovation and Investment Program provides clear immigration pathways for entrepreneurs, though the high cost of living and geographic distance from major markets are notable drawbacks.
Company Formation
| Most common entity type | Pty Ltd (Proprietary Limited Company) |
| Formation timeline | 1-3 business days (online) |
| Formation cost | AUD 576 (ASIC registration) |
| Minimum capital | None |
| Online registration | Yes — ASIC |
A Pty Ltd is the most common structure for startups. Foreign nationals can be shareholders without restrictions. At least one director must be an Australian resident. Registration through ASIC is straightforward and can be done online. You’ll also need an ABN (Australian Business Number) and TFN (Tax File Number).
Entrepreneur & Startup Visas
Business Innovation and Investment (Provisional) Visa (subclass 188):
- Stream A (Business Innovation): For owners/part-owners of businesses with AUD $1.25M+ turnover, minimum investment of AUD $250K
- Stream B (Investor): AUD $2.5M in complying investments
- Stream C (Significant Investor): AUD $5M in complying investments, no age or English requirement
- 5-year provisional visa, path to permanent residence (subclass 888)
Global Talent Visa (subclass 858):
- For highly skilled professionals in target sectors (DigiTech, FinTech, AgTech, MedTech, etc.)
- Must earn above the Fair Work high income threshold (AUD $167,500+) or demonstrate ability to
- Direct pathway to permanent residence
- Processing: 2-6 months
Tax Overview
| Corporate tax rate | 30% (25% for base rate entities with <AUD $50M turnover) |
| GST | 10% |
| Capital gains tax | Included in income; 50% discount for assets held 12+ months |
| Personal income tax (top rate) | 45% (above AUD $190K) + 2% Medicare levy |
| Tax treaty network | 45+ countries |
Australia’s R&D Tax Incentive is one of the most generous globally: a 43.5% refundable tax offset for companies with turnover under AUD $20M (effectively a cash refund on R&D spending, even for pre-revenue startups). Companies with turnover AUD $20M+ receive a non-refundable 38.5% offset.
The Early Stage Innovation Company (ESIC) framework provides angel investors with a 20% tax offset on investments up to AUD $200K and a 10-year capital gains exemption.
Banking & Financial Infrastructure
- Major banks: Commonwealth Bank, ANZ, Westpac, NAB (the “Big Four”)
- Business accounts available to companies with Australian registration
- Stripe is fully available in Australia
- No foreign exchange controls; AUD is freely convertible
- New Payments Platform (NPP) enables instant domestic transfers
- Strong fintech sector: Afterpay (now Block), Airwallex, Zip Co
Key Programs & Incentives
- CSIRO Kick-Start — matched funding grants up to AUD $50K for collaborations with CSIRO researchers
- Accelerating Commercialisation — grants up to AUD $1M to help startups bring products to market
- Export Market Development Grant (EMDG) — reimbursement of export promotion expenses
- Landing Pads — government-supported soft-landing programs in San Francisco, Tel Aviv, Singapore, Shanghai, Berlin
- Stone & Chalk (Sydney/Melbourne) — fintech and deep tech accelerator
- Startmate — leading Australian accelerator and fellowship program
- CicadaVPN/Blackbird Ventures — one of the largest VC firms in the region
- Queensland, Victoria, and NSW each have dedicated startup hubs and grant programs
Loss of Nationality
Voluntary Renunciation
An Australian citizen aged 18 or older may apply to renounce Australian citizenship (Section 33, Citizenship Act 2007) under the following conditions:
- The person must be a citizen or national of another country (or will become one upon renunciation of Australian citizenship). Australia will not allow renunciation that would result in statelessness.
- The person must be of sound mind.
- The application is made to the Minister for Home Affairs (in practice, the Department of Home Affairs).
- The renunciation takes effect when approved and registered.
- US tax compliance: Many dual US-Australian citizens renounce Australian citizenship for tax simplification, though this has no bearing on US tax obligations. Conversely, some Americans in Australia renounce US citizenship and retain Australian.
Involuntary Loss
Since the 2002 reforms, involuntary loss of Australian citizenship is limited to narrow circumstances:
- Fraud or misrepresentation: Citizenship obtained through fraud, false representation, or concealment of material circumstances may be revoked (Section 34). There is no time limit on this power, but natural justice and procedural fairness apply.
- Citizenship cessation (dual nationals — national security): As described above, dual nationals can lose Australian citizenship under Sections 36A-36K for terrorism, fighting for enemy forces, or serious national security offenses.
- Service in armed forces of enemy country: An Australian citizen who is also a citizen of another country and serves in the armed forces of a country at war with Australia ceases to be an Australian citizen (a long-standing provision, rarely if ever applied in the modern era).
- Failure to complete permanent residency: Some transitional provisions allow cessation for persons who acquired citizenship under now-repealed pathways but failed to meet conditions.
Historical involuntary loss (pre-2002):
- Before April 4, 2002, Australian citizens who voluntarily acquired another nationality automatically lost their Australian citizenship under Section 17 of the Australian Citizenship Act 1948. This affected a significant number of Australians, particularly those who naturalized in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, or New Zealand.
- Women who married foreign nationals before 1948 could also lose citizenship under earlier laws.
Recovery / Resumption
Former Australian citizens who lost citizenship before April 4, 2002 due to acquiring another nationality have a straightforward resumption pathway:
- Section 29 (Resumption): A person who ceased to be an Australian citizen because of the operation of Section 17 of the old Act (voluntary acquisition of another nationality) may apply to resume Australian citizenship.
- No residency requirement: The applicant does not need to be living in Australia.
- Good character: The applicant must be of good character.
- Dual citizenship permitted: Since the 2002 reforms, resuming Australian citizenship does not require renouncing the other nationality.
- Descendants: The resumption provisions apply to the former citizen, not their descendants. However, once a parent resumes citizenship, children born after the parent’s loss of citizenship may be eligible to apply by descent (case-by-case analysis required).
- Application: Made to the Department of Home Affairs, either within Australia or at an Australian diplomatic mission abroad.
This resumption pathway was created specifically to address the large number of Australians (estimated at over 1 million) who lost citizenship under the old rules, particularly those living in the UK, US, Canada, and New Zealand.
Practical Guide
Documents Required
For Citizenship by Conferral (General Naturalization)
Completed Form 1300t (Application for Australian Citizenship by Conferral)
Identity documents (birth certificate, passport, or national identity card)
Evidence of permanent residency (visa grant letter, travel document, VEVO check)
Evidence of residency in Australia (utility bills, bank statements, lease agreements, employment records)
Passport-sized photos (as specified on form)
Criminal history check (conducted by the Department; applicant provides consent)
Change of name documentation (if applicable — marriage certificate, deed poll, etc.)
Character statutory declaration (Form 1195)
Evidence of arrival in Australia (travel records, passport stamps)
For Citizenship by Descent (Born Overseas)
Completed Form 1290 (Application for Australian Citizenship by Descent)
Child’s birth certificate (certified or original)
Parent’s Australian citizenship evidence (citizenship certificate, Australian passport, or birth certificate if born in Australia)
Parent’s identity documents
Passport-sized photos of the child
Parent’s travel history to/from Australia (if parent is also a citizen by descent)
For Resumption of Citizenship
Completed Form 1540 (Application to Become an Australian Citizen Again)
Evidence of former Australian citizenship (old citizenship certificate, Australian passport, or birth certificate)
Evidence of the event that caused loss of citizenship (naturalization certificate from the other country, with date)
Current passport or identity documents
Character evidence
Passport-sized photos
Where to Submit
| Situation | Submit To |
|---|---|
| By conferral (in Australia) | Online via ImmiAccount (Department of Home Affairs): immi.homeaffairs.gov.au |
| By conferral (outside Australia) | Rare; generally must be in Australia. Ministerial discretion for exceptional cases. |
| By descent | Online via ImmiAccount, or at an Australian embassy/consulate abroad |
| Resumption | Online via ImmiAccount, or at an Australian embassy/consulate abroad |
| Citizenship test | Scheduled by the Department after application approval; conducted at Department offices across Australia |
| Citizenship ceremony | Arranged by your local council after test passage; held at council chambers, community centers, or special events |
Processing Time
| Pathway | Typical Processing Time |
|---|---|
| By conferral (general) | 12-18 months (application to ceremony); can extend to 24+ months during peak periods |
| By descent | 2-8 months |
| Resumption | 3-12 months |
| Citizenship test scheduling | 1-4 months after application is assessed |
| Citizenship ceremony | 1-6 months after test passage (varies by local council) |
Fees
| Item | Cost (AUD) |
|---|---|
| Citizenship by conferral (adult, age 18+) | AUD 490 |
| Citizenship by conferral (child under 16 included in parent’s application) | No additional fee |
| Citizenship by conferral (child under 16 applying alone) | AUD 310 |
| Citizenship by descent | AUD 390 |
| Resumption of citizenship | AUD 170 |
| Evidence of Australian Citizenship (replacement certificate) | AUD 310 |
| Australian passport (adult, 10-year validity) | AUD 398 |
| Australian passport (child under 16, 5-year validity) | AUD 200 |
Note: Fees are updated periodically. Always confirm current fees at the Department of Home Affairs website before applying. Fee waivers may be available in cases of financial hardship (ministerial discretion).
Tips
- Plan your absences carefully. The 4-year residency requirement includes a maximum of 12 months total absence and no more than 90 days absence in the final 12 months before application. Travel records are scrutinized.
- Study the booklet. The citizenship test draws exclusively from Australian Citizenship: Our Common Bond, available as a free PDF from the Department of Home Affairs. Practice tests are available online.
- Attend the ceremony. Citizenship is not conferred until you attend the ceremony and make the pledge. If you fail to attend a ceremony within 12 months of approval, your approval may lapse.
- NZ citizens should explore the 2023 pathway. The direct citizenship pathway for NZ Special Category Visa holders eliminates the need to first apply for permanent residency — a significant simplification.
- SIV applicants — engage a migration agent. The Significant Investor Visa involves complex complying investment requirements and should be managed with professional migration advice. The investment must be maintained for the full provisional period; early withdrawal disqualifies the application.
Related Countries
| Country | Relevance |
|---|---|
| New Zealand | Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement allows unrestricted movement. NZ citizens have a direct pathway to Australian citizenship since 2023 reforms. Australia and NZ share the closest bilateral migration relationship in the world. |
| United Kingdom | Large British-born population in Australia. Many Australians lost citizenship pre-2002 by naturalizing in the UK. UK Ancestry Visa available to Commonwealth citizens with a UK-born grandparent, providing a reciprocal pathway for Australians to live in the UK. |
| United States | Significant Australian expatriate community. Pre-2002 citizenship losses affected many Australians who naturalized as US citizens. ESTA visa-free travel available to Australian passport holders. |
| Canada | Commonwealth connection. Reciprocal working holiday arrangements. Similar points-based immigration system. |
| Papua New Guinea | Former Australian territory. Citizens of PNG born before independence (September 16, 1975) may have had Australian citizenship. Complex transitional provisions. |
| Italy, Greece, China, India, Vietnam, Philippines | Major source countries for Australian immigration. Large diaspora communities in Australia. Citizens of these countries form a significant portion of naturalization applicants. |
Sources
- Australian Citizenship Act 2007 (Cth) — The primary governing statute. Available at legislation.gov.au.
- Australian Citizenship Legislation Amendment Act 2002 — Introduced dual citizenship provisions (commenced April 4, 2002).
- Australian Citizenship Act 1948 (Cth) — The predecessor statute, relevant for historical loss and resumption cases.
- Migration Act 1958 (Cth) — Governs visa subclasses including the SCV, SIV, and other residency pathways that lead to citizenship.
- Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement (1973) — Bilateral arrangement between Australia and New Zealand governing freedom of movement.
- Department of Home Affairs — Citizenship portal and ImmiAccount.
- Australian Citizenship: Our Common Bond — Official citizenship test resource booklet, published by the Department of Home Affairs.
- New Zealand Pathway (2023) — Policy changes effective July 1, 2023, allowing direct citizenship pathway for NZ SCV holders.