Eritrea

Last Updated: 2026-04-02

Official Portal: Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Embassy Finder: Eritrean Embassies and Consulates

Quick Facts

Category	Details
Residency for naturalization	10 years of continuous lawful residence
Language requirement	No formal language test; working languages are Tigrinya, Arabic, and English
Civics test	No formal exam
Processing time	Highly variable; no published timelines. Decisions are made by the government with limited transparency
Naturalization fee	Not publicly standardized
Dual citizenship	Conditional — Eritrea tolerates dual nationality in practice but conditions consular services on payment of the 2% diaspora income tax
Citizenship by birth in Eritrea	Conditional on parentage (jus sanguinis)
Citizenship by descent	Yes, through either parent — this is the primary mode of acquisition
Governing law	Eritrean Nationality Proclamation No. 21/1992 of 6 April 1992; Proclamation No. 24/1992 (implementation regulations)

Dual Citizenship

Eritrea’s approach to dual citizenship is unique and controversial. While the Nationality Proclamation does not explicitly prohibit dual citizenship, the government uses a system of financial obligations to condition the exercise of citizenship rights by diaspora Eritreans.

The 2% Diaspora Income Tax:

Eritrea imposes a 2% tax on the worldwide income of all Eritrean citizens and persons of Eritrean origin living abroad. This tax is administered through Eritrean embassies and consulates and is a condition for receiving consular services, including:

Passport issuance and renewal
Birth and marriage certificates
Property transactions in Eritrea
Entry visas for family visits
Inheritance claims

Mechanism: Diaspora Eritreans must sign a declaration of income and pay 2% of gross income to the embassy or consulate. Refusal to pay results in denial of consular services. This system has been condemned by the United Nations, with UN Security Council Resolution 2023 (2011) demanding that Eritrea cease using coercive methods to collect the tax, including threats of reprisals against family members in Eritrea.

Practical effect on dual citizenship:

Eritrea does not formally strip nationality from citizens who acquire foreign passports. An Eritrean who naturalizes in Germany, the United States, or Sweden remains Eritrean in the eyes of the government.
However, exercising Eritrean citizenship rights (consular services, property, travel to Eritrea) is conditioned on tax compliance.
Many diaspora Eritreans hold dual nationality in practice — the community is particularly large in Sweden, Germany, the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Israel.
Host countries have taken action: Canada expelled an Eritrean consul in 2013 over the tax; the Netherlands and Germany have formally protested the practice.

Acquisition of Nationality

By Birth (Jus Sanguinis)

Eritrea follows a strict jus sanguinis system. Birth on Eritrean territory does not confer nationality.

Article 2 of Proclamation No. 21/1992:

A person is an Eritrean national by birth if:

They were born to a father or mother of Eritrean origin (defined as persons who were resident in Eritrea in 1933 — the date of Italian colonial administrative establishment of Eritrea’s borders).

Key notes:

The 1933 reference date is critical. It defines “Eritrean origin” as belonging to a group present in the territory when the colonial borders were established.
This provision was designed to include all nine recognized ethnic groups (Tigrinya, Tigre, Saho, Bilen, Afar, Nara, Kunama, Rashaida, and Hedareb) and their descendants.
Children born in Eritrea to two foreign parents do not acquire Eritrean nationality.

By Descent

Children born outside Eritrea to at least one Eritrean parent acquire nationality automatically through descent.

No generational limit: The Nationality Proclamation does not impose a generational cutoff. A child born in Sweden to an Eritrean parent who was born in Saudi Arabia to Eritrean parents who left in the 1960s is still Eritrean. This expansive definition supports the government’s position that all persons of Eritrean origin remain citizens (and tax-paying obligations persist).

By Adoption

The Nationality Proclamation does not contain a specific provision on acquisition through adoption. In practice, a minor child adopted by an Eritrean citizen may be registered as Eritrean, but the legal basis is unclear and handled on a case-by-case basis by the government.

By Marriage

Marriage to an Eritrean citizen may facilitate acquisition of nationality.

Article 2(5) of Proclamation No. 21/1992:

A foreign national who marries an Eritrean citizen may acquire Eritrean nationality by application.
There is no specified minimum marriage duration in the Proclamation text.
The application is made to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs or the relevant embassy/consulate.
The government has broad discretion in granting or refusing the application.

By Naturalization

Standard pathway (Article 3, Proclamation No. 21/1992):

Requirement	Details
Lawful residence	10 years of continuous residence in Eritrea
Age	At least 18 years old
Character	No conviction for a serious criminal offense
Economic means	Must have a legal and adequate means of income
Language	No formal requirement, but ability to communicate in one of Eritrea’s working languages (Tigrinya, Arabic, English) is expected
Renunciation	The Proclamation does not explicitly require renunciation, consistent with Eritrea’s practical tolerance of dual nationality
Approval	Granted by the government (no published process for ministerial or presidential decree)

Practical note: Naturalization in Eritrea is extremely rare. The country’s political system, indefinite national service obligation, and limited rule of law make it one of the most difficult countries in the world in which to naturalize as a foreign national.

Loss and Renunciation

Voluntary Renunciation

The Nationality Proclamation does not contain a detailed renunciation procedure. In practice, Eritrea does not facilitate or encourage renunciation, as the government maintains that all persons of Eritrean origin are citizens with corresponding obligations (including the 2% tax).

Persons who wish to renounce may make a declaration to the relevant embassy, but the government’s acceptance of renunciation is not guaranteed and there is no published procedure.

Involuntary Loss

Ground	Details
Treason or acts against the state	The government may strip nationality from persons convicted of acts against the sovereignty or security of the state
Fraud	Nationality obtained through false statements or concealment of material facts may be revoked
Serving a foreign state against Eritrea	Broadly interpreted; has been used against political opponents in exile

National service dimension: All Eritrean citizens (men and women) are subject to indefinite national service, which was originally 18 months but has been extended without limit since 1998. Failure to complete national service does not formally result in loss of nationality but may result in denial of exit visas, property rights, and government services. This has been identified by UNHCR as a primary driver of Eritrean refugee flows.

Restoration of Nationality

The 1992 Nationality Proclamation was drafted specifically to restore Eritrean nationality to all persons of Eritrean origin following independence from Ethiopia in 1991 (formalized by the 1993 referendum).

Key provisions:

All persons who are of Eritrean origin (resident in the territory in 1933 or descended from such persons) were declared Eritrean nationals.
This included diaspora populations who had lived abroad for decades during the Ethiopian occupation and the war of independence (1961—1991).
The 1993 independence referendum required proof of Eritrean origin to participate, and the voter registration process effectively served as a nationality registration exercise.

For persons who may have subsequently lost or been stripped of nationality, there is no published restoration procedure. Restoration would require direct engagement with the government.

Stateless Persons and Foundlings

Eritrea is not a party to the 1954 Convention Relating to the Status of Stateless Persons or the 1961 Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness.

Foundlings: The Nationality Proclamation does not contain a specific foundling provision. In practice, children of unknown parentage found in Eritrea would likely be treated as Eritrean, but there is no statutory guarantee.

Statelessness risks: Significant statelessness risks exist in the Eritrea-Ethiopia context:

Following the 1998—2000 Eritrea-Ethiopia war, Ethiopia deported approximately 75,000 persons of Eritrean origin, many of whom had Ethiopian nationality or were of mixed heritage. Some remain stateless or of uncertain nationality.
Eritreans who flee the country without completing national service may face difficulties obtaining or renewing identity documents from Eritrean embassies (due to tax non-compliance or political opposition).
UNHCR has identified Eritrean refugees as one of the largest populations at risk of statelessness in the Horn of Africa.

Document Checklist

Completed nationality application or registration form (obtained from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs or embassy)

Proof of Eritrean origin (birth certificate of applicant or parent, baptismal records, 1993 referendum registration card, or village/community attestation)

Valid passport or travel document (or evidence of prior nationality for naturalization applicants)

Birth certificate (authenticated)

Marriage certificate (if applying through spousal pathway)

Evidence of 2% diaspora income tax compliance (for consular services)

Criminal background check (from country of residence)

Proof of 10 years continuous residence (for naturalization applicants)

Evidence of economic self-sufficiency

Two passport-sized photographs

Signed income declaration form (for diaspora tax purposes)

Sources

Eritrean Nationality Proclamation No. 21/1992 of 6 April 1992 — Primary nationality legislation. https://www.refworld.org/
Proclamation No. 24/1992 — Implementation regulations for the Nationality Proclamation.
UN Security Council Resolution 2023 (2011) — Demanded cessation of coercive diaspora tax collection. https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/
UNHCR — Refworld: Eritrea Nationality and Statelessness Documentation. https://www.refworld.org/
Global Citizenship Observatory (GLOBALCIT) — Eritrea Country Profile. https://globalcit.eu/
UN Human Rights Council — Report of the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in Eritrea (2015, 2016). Detailed treatment of national service, diaspora tax, and nationality-related human rights concerns.

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